20 Lesson n°10
20.1 Warmup
| Word | Stress Pattern | IPA (RP) | Received Pronunciation | General American |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| contumelious | /20100/ | /ˌkɒn.tju.’miːl.i.əs/ | contumelious | |
| periodic | /2010/ | /ˌpɪər.i.’ɒd.ɪk/ | /ˌpɪr.i.’ɑːd.ɪk/ | |
| counterfactual | /20100/ | /ˌkaʊnt.ə.’fæk.tʃu.əl/ | counterfactual | |
| subterranean | /20100/ | /ˌsʌb.tə.’reɪn.i.ən/ | /sʌb.tə.’reɪn.i.ən/ | |
| mediocrity | /20100/ | /ˌmiːd.i.’ɒk.rət.i/ | /ˌmiːd.i.’ɑːk.rət.i/ | |
| vitriolic | /2010/ | /ˌvɪtr.i.’ɒl.ɪk/ | /ˌvɪtr.i.’ɑːl.ɪk/ | |
| humidify | /0100/ | /hju.’mɪd.ɪ.faɪ/ | humidify | |
| acrimonious | /20100/ | /ˌæk.ri.’məʊn.i.əs/ | /ˌæk.ri.’moʊn.i.əs/ | |
| senatorial | /20100/ | /ˌsen.ə.’tɔːr.i.əl/ | /ˌsen.ə.’tɔːr.i.əl/ | |
| theologian | /20100/ | /ˌθiː.ə.’ləʊdʒ.i.ən/ | /ˌθiː.ə.’loʊdʒ.i.ən/ |
We follow Carley and Mees (2021).
20.1.0.1 Weak forms and contractions: articles and quantifiers
- “Some” has a weak form when it means ‘an indefinite number or amount’ and is used with uncountable and plural nouns as the equivalent of the indefinite article “a/an”. The /əm/ of /səm/ is frequently realised as a syllabic consonant, resulting in /sm̩ /. The phrase some more is usually pronounced /sə ’mɔː/. For example:
- Take some pictures. /’teɪk sm̩ ’pɪktʃəz/ or /’teɪk səm ’pɪktʃəz/; Get me some water. /’get miː sm̩ ’wɔːtə/ or /’get miː səm ’wɔːtə/; I want some more. /aɪ ’wɒnt sə ’mɔː/
Other uses of some have no weak form, for example:
as a pronoun: Take some. /’teɪk ’sʌm/)
with the meanings ‘a certain subgroup of the whole’ (e.g. Some people like it. /’sʌm ’piːpl ̩ ’laɪk ɪt/)
‘a large number or amount’ (e.g. We slept for some time. /wiː ’slept fə ’sʌm ’taɪm/)
‘something or someone unknown or unspecified’ (e.g. He’s just some guy I know. /hiːz ’dʒʌst ’sʌm ’gaɪ aɪ ’nəʊ/)
‘an impressive instance of something’ (That was some night out! /’ðæt wəz ’sʌm ’naɪt ’aʊt/) .
| Expression | Transcription |
|---|---|
| Take some more time off | ’teɪk sə ’mɔː ’taɪm ’ɒf |
| An elephant crushed a nut | ən ’eləfn̩t (or ’eləfənt) ’krʌʃt ə ’nʌt |
| Pull the other one | ’pʊl ði ’ʌðə ’wʌn |
| I want some tea | aɪ ’wɒnt səm (or sm̩ ) ’tiː |
| It took an hour | ɪt ’tʊk ən ’aʊə |
20.1.0.2 Weakening: prepositions
| Weak | Strong | |
|---|---|---|
| to | tə tu | tuː |
| for | fə | fɔː |
| from | frəm | frɒm |
| at | ət | æt |
| of | əv | ɒv |
“To” has a weak form both as a preposition and as the to-infinitive, and also as part of “into”.
“To” is pronounced /tə/ before a consonant, /tu/ before a vowel.
There’s a tendency for the weak form of “of” to lose its final /v/ when followed by a word beginning with a consonant. This is most common in high-frequency phrases and when a function word beginning with /ð/ follows.
The remaining monosyllabic prepositions (e.g. with, on, in, by, etc.) are also usually unstressed, but have no regular weak forms.
When prepositions are separated from the noun phrase they refer to, they take their strong forms.
| Expression | Transcription |
|---|---|
| Who are you looking for ? | ’huː ə jə ’lʊkɪŋ fɔː |
| It’s the man you stole from | it’s ðə ’mæn jə ’stəʊl frɒm |
| Go to work | ’gəʊ tə ’wɜːk |
| Try to study | ’traɪ tə ’stʌdi |
| Buy it for Tom | ’baɪ ɪt fə ’tɒm |
20.1.0.3 Auxiliary ‘BE’
| Weak Forms | Strong Forms | |
|---|---|---|
| am | əm m | æm |
| are | ə | ɑː |
| is | z s | ɪz |
| was | wəz | wɒz |
| were | wə | wɜː |
- When “am” occurs directly after “I”, it reduces to /m/ and combines with “I” to form the contraction “I’m” /aɪm/. In other positions, “am” is /əm/.
I’m waiting. /aɪm ’weɪtɪŋ/; He knows I’m ill. /hi ’nəʊz aɪm ’ɪl/
Am I right? /əm aɪ ’raɪt/; Where am I going? /’weər əm aɪ ’gəʊɪŋ/
- The weak form of “are” is /ə/. When “are” occurs directly after “you”, “we” and “they”, it combines with them to form the contractions “you’re” /jɔː/ or /ju/, “we’re” /wɪə/ (occasionally /weə/ ) and “they’re” /ðeə/.
Are you there? /ə ju ’ðeə/; People are waiting. /’piːpəl ə ’weɪtɪŋ/; What are they doing? /’wɒt ə ðeɪ ’duːɪŋ/
Now you’re ready. /’naʊ jɔː ’redi/ or /’naʊ ju ’redi/; We’re winning. /wɪə ’wɪnɪŋ/; They’re coming. /ðeə ’kʌmɪŋ/
- After a pause or a word ending in /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/ or /dʒ/, “is” doesn’t form a contraction, but remains /ɪz/, the same as the strong form. For example:
Is John home? /ɪz ’dʒɒn ’həʊm/; Is that all. /ɪz ’ðæt ’ɔːl/
This is fine. /’ðɪs ɪz ’faɪn/; The prize is huge. /ðə ’praɪz ɪz ’hjuːdʒ/; My fish is cold. /maɪ ’fɪʃ ɪz ’kəʊld/; A massage is nice. /ə ’mæsɑːʒ ɪz ’naɪs/; The church is closed. /ðə ’tʃɜːtʃ ɪz ’kləʊzd/; The page is blank. /ðə ’peɪdʒ ɪz ’blæŋk/
After a word ending in one of the remaining voiceless consonants /p t k f θ/, “is” is /s/, which forms a contraction with the preceding word. For example:
- My soup’s cold. /maɪ ’suːps ’kəʊld/; The hat’s black. /ðə ’hæts ’blæk/; My fork’s bent. /maɪ ’fɔːks ’bent/; The chef’s angry. /ðə ’ʃefs ’æŋgriː/; The moth’s grey. /ðə ’mɒθs ’greɪ/
After a word ending in one of the remaining voiced consonants /b d g v ð m n ŋ l/ or a vowel, “is” is /z/, which forms a contraction with the preceding word. For example:
- Bob’s hungry. /’bɒbz ’hʌŋgriː/; The bird’s wet. /ðə ’bɜːdz ’wet/; My dog’s tired. /maɪ ’dɒgz ’taɪəd/; Dave’s here. /’deɪvz ’hɪə/; The scythe’s blunt. /ðə ’saɪðz ’blʌnt/; My thumb’s sore. /maɪ ’θʌmz ’sɔː/; The bin’s empty. /ðə ’bɪnz ’emtiː/; The ring’s expensive. /ðə ’rɪŋz ɪk’spensɪv/; The bell’s loud. /ðə ’belz ’laʊd/; The key’s over there. /ðə ’kiːz ’əʊvə ’ðeə/; The car’s slow. /ðə ’kɑːz ’sləʊ/; The door’s open. /ðə ’dɔːz ’əʊpən/
- The other monosyllabic forms of “BE”, “be” /biː/ and “been” /biːn bɪn/, are also frequently unstressed, but have no regular weak forms. Although “been” has two forms, they don’t constitute a strong form/weak form pair, /bɪn/
| Expression | Transcription |
|---|---|
| That was that. | ’ðæt wəz ’ðæt |
| Are you ready? | ə juː ’rediː |
| I’m fine. | aɪm ’faɪn |
| They were there. | ðeɪ wə ’ðeə |
| We’re thinking about it. | wɪə ’θɪŋkɪŋ ə’baʊt ɪt |
20.1.0.4 Auxiliary ‘HAVE’
| Weak Forms | Strong Forms | |
|---|---|---|
| have | əv həv v | hæv |
| has | əz həz z s | hæz |
| had | əd həd d | hæd |
- After “I”, “you”, “we”, “they”, “who” (relative pronoun) and “there” auxiliary “have” reduces to /v/ and forms the contractions “I’ve” /aɪv/, “you’ve” /juːv/, “we’ve” /wiːv/, “they’ve” /ðeɪv/, “who’ve” /huːv/ and “there’ve” /ðəv/. For example:
I’ve never seen it. /aɪv ’nevə ’siːn ɪt/; You’ve made a mess. /juːv ’meɪd ə ’mes/; We’ve done our best. /wiːv ’dʌn ɑː ’best/; They’ve turned it down. /ðeɪv ’tɜːnd ɪt ’daʊn/; The people who’ve seen it /ðə ’piːpl ̩ huːv ’siːn ɪt/;
There’ve been loads. /ðəv biːn ’ləʊdz/
After other words, “have” is /əv/ (which can result in /r/-liaison), and after a pause “have” is /həv/. For example:
People have complained. /’piːpəl əv kəm’pleɪnd/; Times have changed. /’taɪmz əv ’tʃeɪndʒd/; The deer have eaten it. /ðə ’dɪər əv ’iːtn̩ ɪt/
Have you done it? /həv juː ’dʌn ɪt/; Have I passed? /həv aɪ ’pɑːst/; Have we left? /həv wiː ’left/
“Have” sometimes loses its final /v/ when followed by a consonant in the structure ‘modal verb + have + past participle’. This is more frequent when the past participle is “been”, and in more casual speech. For example:
- You must have been crazy. /juː ’mʌst ə biːn ’kreɪzi/; I should have known. /aɪ ’ʃʊd ə ’nəʊn/; It might have been worse. /ɪt ’maɪt ə biːn ’wɜːs/
- After a word ending in /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/ or /dʒ/, has is /əz/, and after a pause “has” is /həz/. For example:
Chris has gone. /’krɪs əz ’gɒn/; My size has changed. /maɪ ’saɪz əz ’tʃeɪndʒd/;
My cash has gone. /maɪ ’kæʃ əz ’gɒn/; Her rouge has run out. /hə ’ruːʒ əz ’rʌn ’aʊt/; My watch has stopped. /maɪ ’wɒtʃ əz ’stɒpt/; The stage has collapsed. /ðə ’steɪdʒ əz kə’læpst/
Has John left? /həz ’dʒɒn ’left/; Has the bus arrived? /həz ðə ’bʌs ə’raɪvd/
After a word ending in one of the remaining voiceless consonants /p t k f θ/, “has” is /s/, which forms a contraction with the preceding word. For example:
My soup’s gone. /maɪ ’suːps ’gɒn/; The hat’s been stolen. /ðə ’hæts biːn ’stəʊlən/; My fork’s fallen on the floor. /maɪ ’fɔːks ’fɔːlən ɒn ðə ’flɔː/;
The moth’s flown away. /ðə ’mɒθs ’fləʊn ə’weɪ/; The chef’s gone home. /ðə ’ʃefs ’gɒn ’həʊm/
After a word ending in one of the remaining voiced consonants /b d g v ð m n ŋ l/ or a vowel, “has” is /z/, which forms a contraction with the preceding word. For example:
Bob’s gone. /’bɒbz ’gɒn/; The bird’s flown away. /ðə ’bɜːdz ’fləʊn ə’weɪ/;
My dog’s disappeared. /maɪ ’dɒgz ’dɪsə’pɪəd/; Dave’s left. /’deɪvz ’left/;
The scythe’s got rusty. /ðə ’saɪðz gɒt ’rʌsti/; My thumb’s got infected. /maɪ ’θʌmz gɒt ɪn’fektɪd/; The bin’s fallen over. /ðə ’bɪnz ’fɔːlən ’əʊvə/;
The ring’s gone. /ðə ’rɪŋz ’gɒn/; The bell’s started to crack. /ðə ’belz ’stɑːtɪd tə ’kræk/; The key’s gone missing. /ðə ’kiːz ’gɒn ’mɪsɪŋ/; The car’s cooled down. /ðə ’kɑːz ’kuːld ’daʊn/; The door’s been painted. /ðə ’dɔːz biːn ’peɪntɪd/
- After “I”, “you”, “he”, “she”, “we”, “they”, “who” “and” “there”, “had” reduces to /d/ and forms the contractions “I’d” /aɪd/, “you’d” /juːd/, “he’d” /hiːd/, “she’d” /ʃiːd/, “we’d” /wiːd/, “they’d” /ðeɪd/, “who’d” /huːd/ and “there’d” /ðəd/. For example:
I’d finished. /aɪd ’fɪnɪʃt/; You’d gone. /juːd ’gɒn/; He’d lost. /hiːd ’lɒst/;
She’d left. /ʃiːd ’left/; We’d started. /wiːd ’stɑːtɪd/; They’d forgotten. /ðeɪd fə’gɒtn̩/; Who’d resigned? /’huːd rɪ’zaɪnd/; people who’d left /’piːpl ̩huːd ’left/; There’d been an accident. /ðəd biːn ən ’æksɪdənt/
After other words, “had” is /əd/, and /r/-liaison occurs when “had” is preceded by a word ending in an /r/-liaison vowel. After a pause, “had” is /həd/. For example:
It’d helped. /ɪt əd ’helpt/; People had understood. /’piːpəl əd ’ʌndə’stʊd/;
Those had gone. /’ðəʊz əd ’gɒn/; The air had escaped. /ðiː ’eər əd ɪ’skeɪpt/;
My brother had known. /maɪ ’brʌðər əd ’nəʊn/
Had he waited? /həd iː ’weɪtɪd/; Had Sam arrived? /həd ’sæm ə’raɪvd/
| Expression | Transcription |
|---|---|
| The boss has gone. | ðə ’bɒs əz ’gɒn |
| The police have arrived. | ðə pə’liːs əv ə’raɪvd |
| Has it happened yet? | həz ɪt ’hæpənd ’jet |
| If only they’d listened. | ɪf ’əʊnli ðeɪd ’lɪsn̩d |
| There’d never been a problem before. | ðəd ’nevə biːn (or bɪn) ə ’prɒbləm bɪ’fɔː (or bə- or bi-) |